| By : Ajit Hari Sahu | Previous | Next |
| Posted on : 29 Aug, 2005 | Total Views : 494 |
The tradition of masks and masked dances is a unique phenomenon of performance culture, shared by South East Asia, Sri Lanka and Japan. Variety of masked dances along with all the modes of puppets is an important segment of performance activity. While the puppets are largely part of the Ramayan tradition, the masked dances have a greater thematic range. Along with the two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabhart, Buddhist themes, tribal rituals and social subjects are dealt with in masked dances.
Craftsmanship
Masks are an example of highly cultivated craftsmanship. Their likeness in design, sculpting, carving and coloring to the puppets, and their stylized facial color scheme in several forms are interesting futures. Often the scheme craftsman makes both masks and puppets, follow similar aesthetic principles in determining the design. Bharat in his Natyashastra has conceived abhinaya (histrionic art) as for-fold. They are related to speech, bodily movements, costume and make-up, and expression of psychic states. Make-up, masks and head-dresses play an important role in the art of the actor. The character are divided into types such as divine, heroic, evil and demonic. This helps determine the scheme of make-up and design of masks and headdress.
Masks are made of different materials, depending on their availability in a particular region, and traditions of craftsmanship. Clay, wood, brass, gilded copper, bamboo, bark, pitch, hide and papier mache are the materials most commonly used for making various type of masks. Varied materials are also used for the equally artistic and decorative headdress. Headdress is used as a separate piece mounted on the mask or integral to the mask. Head-dresses are generally made of a variety of light materials such as shoal pith, sponge or papier mache. Huge head-dresses for such character as the goddess Durga and Narsimha made of shola used with the masks of Shahi Jatra in Orissa, are the most beautiful and imposing headdress pieces.
Headdress
In dealing with the mask, it is essential to include the head-dress which decorates it and makes the performer imposing. Headdress is generally highly decorative and aesthetically blends with the mask as well as with the rich stylized make-up and elaborate costume as, for example, in Krishnattam. Glittering headdresses of different shapes and sizes are integral to the mask. In some cases, however, as Chhau dances of eastern India, decorated headdress made of artificial pearls is separately attached. In Shahi Jatra of Orissa, Lama masks of the Buddhist tradition and tribal masks headdress is part of masks.
The size and design of the headdress, like those of the mask, is fixed for different character types and helps the audience recognize characters at their very entrance. Some times there is only a slight variation in the design of headdresses, which distinguishes one character type from another. A highly decorative headdress, called mukut (crown), is used for the main characters in Ramlila, the cycle plays of the Ram legend, and Rasalila, which are cycle plays based on the Krishna legend.
Movements
The conception and design of a mask, and its very life, is dependent on movements. In turn, movement patterns determine the design of the mask. Mask, therefore, from the very beginning of its appearance in human society has been associated with dance, which is necessary to a full understanding of the character of any mask. Because of this functional association, the mask is conceived with movement in mind. Craftsmen have a subtle sense of movement, which they impart to their conception and design of the mask.
Masks should be treated as icons in relation to movements. During a performance, a mask incorporates the elements of action, fusing the icon and the act together. There is a subtle interplay between the mask and the movements. Most strong masks, such as a tribal masks, Lama masks, masks of demonic characters (devils and evil spirits) and masks used in sacrificial rites and cultic initiation, reflect this integral relationships of icon, mask and movement. Softer, contemplative masks, like Seraikella Chhau masks, are product of the same aesthetics as regards to character, function and power in performance.
Rituals
To impart a sense of mystery and increase the efficacy of a mask, elaborate rituals and ceremonials are observed in its making, preservation and disposal. This is true in all mask traditions. The rituals connecting with the making of a mask relate to selection of secrad wood, its sanctification, and various stages of creation. Ceremonies are also observed after the completion to infuse the mask with life and impart magical power to it. The maker goes through a series of ritual procedure, such as wearing white clothes, observing diet restrictions and abstinence from sex during making of the mask. Most important ceremony is the last act of infusing life in the mask by opening the eyes on its completion.
Masks are shown great reverence by the mask makers and the performers. Ramlila masks and crowns, along with other accessories, are kept within the temple precincts and used only once a year in the ceremonial Ramlila performances during Dussehra celebrations in October.
The ancient tradition of using the masks in performances in India can be traced to the early centuries B.C. There is a reference to the use of masks in the Natyashastra, an encyclopedic treatise on the theory and practice of drama ascribed to the legendary sage Bharata dated between the 2nd cen. B.C. and 2nd cen. A.D. The word for mask used in the Natyashastra is pratishirshak, meaning head-cover, which suggests it was something of the type of a helmet rather than a full face mask. Later, Abhinavagupta, noted eleventh century commentator on the Natyashastra, also referred to mask, which suggests continuity of its use in dramatic performances.
Krishnattam of Kerala (16th century) is the oldest surviving performance from which uses wooden masks for a variety of characters, including Brahma, the god of creation, Yama, the god of death, and various demons. It enacts the Krishna legend in a cyclic format of light plays. The most interesting feature of these masks is that the complex and the colorful geometrical painted pattern suggest the character type and resemble the make-up in Kathakali. The masks of four faced lord Brahma, with light pink color and without any painted design, suggests serenity, and a gilded crown which is integral to the mask imparts godly splendour to the one who wears it. The five headed mask of the demon, Murasura, has very intricate painted patterns, each face with a different color scheme and configuration of lines. While on one face the predominant colors are red and green, on another they are black or white.
Three categories
Three main categories of masks and masked dances are those of the Ramayan tradition, of Buddhist tradition and tribal masks. In the first group, except for a few episodes in the Seraikella and all major episodes in Purulia Chhau, no other dance or dramatic form performs the epic with all the characters wearing mask. There are several performance modes in which some of the Ramayan characters, such as Ravan, Hanuman, Jataayu, the various demons and monkeys, use masks. Ramlila is one such form, which performs the entire epic in cyclic format for a varying number of days (ten, fourteen, twenty-one and thirty-one). There is a great variety in the conception, design and material of masks for these characters. The other form that performs the epic using masks is Shahi Jatra of Orissa, in which large wooden colored masks are used for demons, monkeys and the main characters of the epic.
Chhau
The masks of Seraikella Chhau dances are among the most movement-oriented performance masks. Chhau is the only tradition of dance performed with all the characters wearing masks. These are highly refined and the craftsmanship is greatly developed. The most distinguishing geatures of the masks are the stylized arch-like eyebrows and elongated half closed eyes. These features impart a sense of mystery to the mask. The flat and neutral masks have been especially conceived, keeping the movements in mind. During the performance, the masks acquire a whole range of expressions changing with very twist and turn of the body. Masks of gods, goddesses and heries have highly decorative headdresses made of zari (gold or silver thread) and artificial pearls. Headdress is mounted on the mask.
Chhau masks are made of clay after following an elaborate process. At first, a rough model of the desired mask is made with clay by hands. Then the torn pieces of paper are pasted on the model. After that a deep layer of clay is painted. Next, pieces of torn cloth are pasted on it with sticky clay. Then begins the polishing of the mask including nose, eyes, ears, chin, lips, teeth by a very delicate wooden chisel. Thin tips of the nose, chin, two sides of each eye are then sharpened by a pointed wooden instrument. Afterwards it is painted by a thin layer of clay.
Now at this stage the mask is removed from the clay model by a sharp iron instrument. It is fully dried in sun shine. The model is broken in the cores of removal of the mask and the clay is utilized for making the next model. The last item is the outer decoration of the mask. The headdress of Purulia mask is decorated by a frame of crystal wire tinsel, colored paper, flowers of colored wool. However, these days plastic is used for decoration. The mask of demons do not have headdress and facial features are made crudely.
Masks are also used for Narsimha, the half-man half-lion god and Ganesha, the elephant-headed god. The mask of Narsimha, an incarnation of lord Vishnu, one of the gods of the great Hindu Trinity, is the strongest with an awe-inspiring iconography painted in deep red color. it is used in several traditional performance forms dealing with the story of his appearance to save his devotee child Prahlad from the tyranny of his father, the tyrant king Hiranyakashipu.
One of the forms of dance-drama performing this episode is Bhagwat Mela held in front of famous Narsimha temple in Mellatur, Tamil Nadu and the mask which is kept in the temple and worshiped along with the deity, is ceremonially taken out for the annual performance. After the performance is over, it is ceremonially taken back. The player of the role of Narsimha often gets possessed, and to control his fury when he takes out the sword to kill the king, the stage-hands have to tie him with a rope. In another form, Prahlad Natak of Orissa, when performing the same story, the player wearing the Narsimha mask goes into trance and has to be removed from the arena. The performance is completed with mask of Narsimha kept on a stool as he symbol.
The mask of Ganesha is used in several forms in the preliminaries. It is a delightful mask painted red and made of wood, metal, zari and other materials. Ganesha, being the presiding deity of tradition theatre, is worshipped. A prayer in his honour is sung in most of the traditional forms as part of the preliminaries, which include observance of religious rites, dance and musical recitals, and introduction of the play and characters.
Chhau and Martial Arts
The basis of Chhau dances in the martial art 'parikhanda' (pari=shield, khanda=sword) is of special interest. In two other regions of the country, namely Manipur in the northeast and Kerala down south, several traditional and classical forms have their basis in the martial art traditions. In spite of high degree of Stylization, the movements and body postures in Chhau retain strong martial Character. The link with parikhanda is so close that all the dance terminology, which in the local Oriya language and not in Sanskrit, is common with the terminology of parikhanda.
Even in contemporary practice, this close link between Chhau and parikhanda is well maintained. In the early stage of training, boys have to learn parikhanda exercises. During the annual ceremonial dance festival held in mid-April in celebration of the spring season, dancers practice parikhanda martial art with sword and shield in the morning on the local river bed, and in the evening they dance Chhau with costume, mask and music. In Chhau and in parikhanda, movements are inspired by animal and bird imagery, a phenomenon common to other Asian martial arts.
Themes
Themes in Chhau dances range from nature and birds to characters and episodes from the epics and legends. Its repertoire has got developed mostly during the last sixty years or so. The earliest numbers were simpler and closer to the martial exercises. Number like hunter, fisherman, boatman and astradanda, (swordplay), belong to this category. A second category of dances is of those dealing with themes from the two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharat, mythology and traditional lore. Some of these dances are Ardhanarishvara, (a composite form of Shiva and Parvati symbolizing unison of male-female energy), Radha-Krishna, Hara-Parvati, peacock, ocean and swan etc. Most of the dances are either solo or duet, and of shorter duration, lasting five to seven minutes. This is because the holes of the nostrils in the mask are too small and the dancers have difficulty in breathing.
Three Styles
The three styles of Chhau dances (of Seraikella and Purulia performed with masks, and of Mayurbhanj without masks), named after their main centers of origin and prevalence, belong to the three contiguous states of Jharkhand (previously part of Bihar), West Bengal and Orissa in the eastern region. They have developed in a relationship of mutual exchange and interaction. Their location in three different states is a development resulting from the reorganization of Indian states after independence in 1947. In spite of differences in movement techniques, the three styles of Chhau dance have many common features because they are product of common artistic traditions and cultural ethos.
Chhau dances are unique in that day represent folk-classical continuum in dance, which is distinctive to Indian artistic traditions. The same folk-classical continuum exists in all performing and plastic arts. The dances based on martial art have close links with the rich traditions of regional folk and tribal dances. The movements are inspired by animals and birds, tiger, deer, elephant, snake, crane, bear and swan and the daily chores of the housewife, such as sweeping of the floor, sprinkling of water, cleaning the toe ring, husking paddy, pounding rice, bathing in the river, etc. and making ritual designs of the floor.
The body attitude and the whole dynamics on movement in Chhau, especially the upward thrust, leg extension and full utilization of space, are different from classical dances, which are earthbound and gravity-oriented. With spiral movements, the dancer traverses the whole performance arena and utilizes all the space available. No matter where the dancer's body is temporarily situated, the entire space becomes alive and charged. Space is made integral to the choreographic design. This results in the formation of expressive space designs. One space design follows another, and there is a pattern in their succession in time. These designs are superbly balanced and greatly contribute to the structure of the dance. The dancers have an innate sense of structure, and this feeling is most dominant in this dances.
In spite of several shared features, the three stylize of Chhau dance has their own distinctive features. Swinging, gliding and startling movements, sudden turns and twists of the body, slow conservation and abrupt release of energy, and trace-like ecstasy characterize the Seraikella Chhau dance. The highly stylized and sophisticated design of the mask has also played a vital part in determining the nature of its movements. 'Radha-Krishna', 'Chandrabhaga', 'Aedhanarishvara', Mayur' (peacock) and 'Nabik' (boatman) are some of the most representative dances of this style.
Bent-knee foot stepping, short vertical jumps and full circle spins, quivering and twisting of the upper torso, and violent wiggling of the shoulders characterize the Purulia Chhau dance. Dancers plant their feet forcefully on the ground and freeze in posture of encounter and challenge. Dancing with ferociousness and gusto, dancers display an acute entry of drama. In a composition involving a number of characters, the entry of each is well-planned and cleverly manipulated using the passage-way as an extension of the dancing arena. Various units of dance are dramatically conceived. 'Kiratarjuna', (Kirat and Arjun) 'Abhimanyu bath' (killing of Abhimanyu) and 'Mahishasura Bath' (killing of Mahishasura) are some of the representative dances of this style. They display a neat dramatic structuring with a fine sense of grouping and tableau formation, which is a typical feature of Purulia style.
Gradual development of the dance, well-knit phrasing, and controlled movements filled with explosive energy epitomize the Mayurbhanj style. The rectangular sculpturesque basic posture defines the primary attitude of the dance and sustains its pictorial quality. The dance begins with a sticking pose by the dancer, heightened by the accompanying music. The dance proceeds to the second stage, chali, a highly dramatic gait, and conclude with a heightened tempo. Dance without mask, as in the Mayurbhanj style, has been able to evolve more group dances than the other two styles.
The music accompaniment has an obvious martial strain. The huge drum, dhamsa, used by Purulia and Mayurbhanj Chhau dances are apparently to tribal origin, and have been frequently referred to in the medieval narrative and folk heroic poetry. Taking his cue from the reverberating powerful beats on the drum, the Chhau dancer makes sparkling body movements, which are appropriately called chamak, that's "flash", in the dance terminology. In Purulia Chhau, the two dhol (a cylindrical folk drum) players vigorously move about the dance arena, provoking and encouraging the dancer with strong gestures in the manner of the matador, imparting to the dance event the thrill and excitement of a sports event. Powerful rhythmic accompaniment to the dance in all three styles played in the three conventional speed of slow (vilambit), medium (madhyama) and fast (druta) divides and sustains the dance in three well demarcated and superbly balanced stages. The three-speed rhythmic structure fills the development of the dance with a strong sense of drama; and it is widely used musical principle in the dances all over the country.
Along with few episodes involving fighting from the epic Mahabharata , Purulia Chhau performs the entire epic Ramayana in 28 episodes covering all major incidents. The series conclude with the number, killing of Ravan by Ram. From the Mahabharata most popular and dramatic number is killing of Abhimanyu. Mahishasura Mardini depicting the story of killing of the demon Mahisha by the goddess Durga is the most spectacular number. The dance concludes in a tableau formation, which moves on the stage.
Buddhist Tradition
Another important group of masks and masked dances is that of the Buddhist tradition, which is both ancient and widespread. These masked dances range from the one thousand year old Bugaku of Japan to the monastic Lama masked dances prevalent in the north-eastern and north-western regions of the Himalayan range.
Buddhist masks symbolically represent gods, demons, evil spirits, birds and animals, and carved with strong and dramatic features, abnormally raised eyebrows, bulging eyes, protruding teeth and cheek-bones in bold relief. Masks are painted in bright colors, the most prominent being red. Masks are mostly carved from single block of wood. Headdresses are integral to the masks, which in the cases of some demonic characters are decorated with long cords of twisted colored yarn. Some masks have symbolic objects mounted on them, such as a dragon and human skull, which greatly heighten the theatrically of the masks and the ritualistic ethos of the dances.
As suggested earlier, mask is at once a piece of art and cult object. In its features and iconography, it embodies religious codes and symbols. It is merely a device to facilitate improvisation, but in fact it is charged with magical power. Wearing a mask is a profound religious act, which brings about mystical transformation and leads on to a journey to the spiritual world.
The design of the masks fully harmonizes with the huge, gorgeous costumes and slow, heavy steps. Swinging and whirling movements in slow and fast tempo, and stamping in monotonous repetitive pattern, in most of the dances they are directly related to the design of the masks, heavy costume and general themes of conflicts with evil spirits and the journey of the soul to the other world.
In its spread northward and eastward, Buddhist carried masks and masked dances along with the teachings, rituals and ceremonials of monastery life. In it intellectual and cultural encounters with different national cultures during its journey, it greatly contributed to the richness of the art of dance and music. Gradual assimilation of Buddhist themes, along with the ideas, motifs and religious rites of the monastic order with indigenous performance mode and elements give rise to new dances, which symbolically enact the meaning and significance of Buddhist thought. All religious and ritualistic performances duplicate the deeds of gods in the world of mortals, and it is by this duplication that the communion between god and man is established.
Movement Patterns
In most of the dances, the movement patterns and formation are limited and repetitive, but they are impregnated with controlled energy and power of contemplation. Monk-dancers, with their feet firmly planted on the ground, slow and heavy stepping, arms open in long flowing sleeves, executing half and full circles of the body, with erect torso, and performing in semi-circles and circles, characterize the overall choreographic design of the dances. Performance elements combine beautifully and harmonies the religious and aesthetic elements.
Dance Numbers
Durdag is the dance of the Lord of the cremation grounds who protects dharma. The dancers' costumes, with design suggesting human skeleton, have been conceived with a keen sense of theatricality. The dance symbolically suggests that those who revere the Buddhist doctrines are liberated from the cycle of birth and death. The dance of the Jinn with drums signifies joy and happiness and is performed after demons have been vanquished. The drums are those of dharma. The beats of sound suggest the spreading of the eternal universal massage of dharma. This dance is performed to seek the blessings of gods and happiness for the community.
In the Komangaku solo dance, the performer, wearing a ferocious red mask and holding a golden snake in the left hand and a stick in the right, depicts in a funny and subtle way the pleasure of eating snakes. A most fierce mask with moving chin and a dragon symbol superimposed on the head is used by a performer of the Rangyo-o dance, which portrays the story of a handsome king going to war with a fearful mask on.
Ritual dances called Chham are performed on special ceremonial occasions. Chham implies the worship of Istadevata, the family deity, and Dharampalas. The dances celebrate the deeds of religious leaders, upholders of the idea of the Sangha (order of monks), and portray the exploits of gods and goddesses, such as Kali, (called Lhamo), and the Kshetrapalas, in various human and animals forms.
Tribal Masks
The third group of Indian masks and masked dances is that of tribal communities who have preserved their distinctive performance culture. These masks are integral to the religious and ritualistic lives of the tribal people. When used in performance mode, these serve both ritualistic and aesthetic purpose, and the two are not separated. Types and designs of tribal masks are determined by religious belief and customs of the community and by nations of supernatural forces. Masks perform a variety of functions depending on the occasions of their use, which include initiation ceremonies, ancestor-worship, funeral and agricultural rites. Masks are treated as sacred cult objects and receive offerings.
Tribal masks are made of simple materials such as bamboo, grass, tree-bark fiber, straw and hide. A great variety of supplementary and decorative material is used, including berries, cowries' shells, beads, bells, ribbons, mirrors, copper, feathers and hair. These are masks of gods, animals, and most common, yet interesting, masks of the medicine-man and shaman. Shaman masks always have long flowing hair, which accentuates the movements of dance and by covering the face intermittently, heightens the mystery.
The world of Indian masks evokes visions of gods, demons and clowns. These categories of characters in traditional drama greatly enhance its theatrically. The demons are engaged in their perpetual fight with the gods. This fight marks the beginning of performance tradition in India and is a recurring theme in performance and pictorial arts. The gods always win, leaving the demons defeated and destroyed, symbolizing the victory of good over evil. Even in puppet performances, some clows are there in the company of the gods to lighten their divinity and bring them down to over human level. Most of the tribal dances are performed on festive occasions and are community event. Masks are used only in those dances, which are performed on ceremonial and ritualistic occasions.
The mysterious world of masks provides another fascinating dimension to the performing tradition of India.
